In recent years, awareness has grown of the scope and scale of violence and discrimination directed at lesbian, gay, bi, trans (LGBT) and intersex people around the world — including killings, torture, arbitrary detention and widespread discrimination in access to health care, education, employment and housing.

United Nations, regional and national human rights bodies have identified critical gaps in the implementation of international standards to address these and related violations, and have issued a plethora of recommendations, including, among them, the repeal of discriminatory legislation and measures to protect LGBT and intersex people from discrimination, violence, torture and ill treatment, and safeguard rights to freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly.

Increasingly, governments are taking action — whether in the form of legislation and policy measures or through targeted social and education programmes. At the United Nations Human Rights Council, more than one hundred countries from all regions around the world have voluntarily committed to take measures to end violence and discrimination linked to sexual orientation and gender identity, based on recommendations generated during the first two cycles of the Universal Periodic Review.

However, serious challenges remain. While many countries have taken encouraging steps, in most cases, these efforts have fallen short of the concerted strategy required to tackle violence and discrimination against LGBT and intersex people. Even in countries that have arguably recorded the most progress in respect of the rights of gay men and lesbians, there has been far less attention given to protecting the rights of trans people and only incipient attention to the rights of intersex people.

United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Living Free and Equal: What States are doing to tackle violence and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex people. (2016). Internet: <www.ohchr.org> (adapted).

Considering the ideas and linguistic aspects of the previous text, judge the following items.

In recent years, awareness has grown of the scope and scale of violence and discrimination directed at lesbian, gay, bi, trans (LGBT) and intersex people around the world — including killings, torture, arbitrary detention and widespread discrimination in access to health care, education, employment and housing.

United Nations, regional and national human rights bodies have identified critical gaps in the implementation of international standards to address these and related violations, and have issued a plethora of recommendations, including, among them, the repeal of discriminatory legislation and measures to protect LGBT and intersex people from discrimination, violence, torture and ill treatment, and safeguard rights to freedom of expression, association and peaceful assembly.

Increasingly, governments are taking action — whether in the form of legislation and policy measures or through targeted social and education programmes. At the United Nations Human Rights Council, more than one hundred countries from all regions around the world have voluntarily committed to take measures to end violence and discrimination linked to sexual orientation and gender identity, based on recommendations generated during the first two cycles of the Universal Periodic Review.

However, serious challenges remain. While many countries have taken encouraging steps, in most cases, these efforts have fallen short of the concerted strategy required to tackle violence and discrimination against LGBT and intersex people. Even in countries that have arguably recorded the most progress in respect of the rights of gay men and lesbians, there has been far less attention given to protecting the rights of trans people and only incipient attention to the rights of intersex people.

United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Living Free and Equal: What States are doing to tackle violence and discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex people. (2016). Internet: <www.ohchr.org> (adapted).

Considering the ideas and linguistic aspects of the previous text, judge the following items.

Cyber issues have become increasingly central in international affairs and the breadth of issues discussed under this rubric has grown, including questions of peace and conflict, the fight against cybercrime and controversies around internet governance. In this context, three issue characteristics have affected the practice of cyber diplomacy.

First, cybersecurity retains a strong technical undercurrent that not only poses a challenge to conventional diplomatic skills but also introduces a distinct temporal quality. Reflecting broader trends in digital connectivity, cybersecurity evolves at the speed of technology, contributing to the transient nature of diplomatic practices, the limits of which are "constantly being renegotiated". These conceptual ambiguities have imbued cyber governance with a distinct political dynamic, offering ample opportunity for varied policy solutions to find "rhetorical shelter".

Second, perceptions of the stakes involved are equally evolving, with initial concerns about cyber war and cyberterrorism being supplemented with a focus on attacks below the level of armed attack. Relatedly, dichotomies across cybercrime and international security are blurring as cybercriminals are enlisted in state-sponsored campaigns.

Third, cyber issues exhibit a cross-cutting nature that breaches institutional and epistemic boundaries, calling into action a swath of actors across the public-private divide and requiring coordination across knowledge domains, including technical, legal and policy knowledge.

Johann Ole Willers, Lars Gjesvik. Cybersecurity as an issue of international affairs. In: Diplomacy in the age of expertise: the case of cyber diplomacy. International Affairs, Oxford University Press, fev./2026. Internet: <academic.oup.com> (adapted).

Based on the ideas presented in the preceding text, as well as on its linguistic aspects, judge the following items.

Cyber issues have become increasingly central in international affairs and the breadth of issues discussed under this rubric has grown, including questions of peace and conflict, the fight against cybercrime and controversies around internet governance. In this context, three issue characteristics have affected the practice of cyber diplomacy.

First, cybersecurity retains a strong technical undercurrent that not only poses a challenge to conventional diplomatic skills but also introduces a distinct temporal quality. Reflecting broader trends in digital connectivity, cybersecurity evolves at the speed of technology, contributing to the transient nature of diplomatic practices, the limits of which are "constantly being renegotiated". These conceptual ambiguities have imbued cyber governance with a distinct political dynamic, offering ample opportunity for varied policy solutions to find "rhetorical shelter".

Second, perceptions of the stakes involved are equally evolving, with initial concerns about cyber war and cyberterrorism being supplemented with a focus on attacks below the level of armed attack. Relatedly, dichotomies across cybercrime and international security are blurring as cybercriminals are enlisted in state-sponsored campaigns.

Third, cyber issues exhibit a cross-cutting nature that breaches institutional and epistemic boundaries, calling into action a swath of actors across the public-private divide and requiring coordination across knowledge domains, including technical, legal and policy knowledge.

Johann Ole Willers, Lars Gjesvik. Cybersecurity as an issue of international affairs. In: Diplomacy in the age of expertise: the case of cyber diplomacy. International Affairs, Oxford University Press, fev./2026. Internet: <academic.oup.com> (adapted).

Based on the ideas presented in the preceding text, as well as on its linguistic aspects, judge the following items.

Cyber issues have become increasingly central in international affairs and the breadth of issues discussed under this rubric has grown, including questions of peace and conflict, the fight against cybercrime and controversies around internet governance. In this context, three issue characteristics have affected the practice of cyber diplomacy.

First, cybersecurity retains a strong technical undercurrent that not only poses a challenge to conventional diplomatic skills but also introduces a distinct temporal quality. Reflecting broader trends in digital connectivity, cybersecurity evolves at the speed of technology, contributing to the transient nature of diplomatic practices, the limits of which are "constantly being renegotiated". These conceptual ambiguities have imbued cyber governance with a distinct political dynamic, offering ample opportunity for varied policy solutions to find "rhetorical shelter".

Second, perceptions of the stakes involved are equally evolving, with initial concerns about cyber war and cyberterrorism being supplemented with a focus on attacks below the level of armed attack. Relatedly, dichotomies across cybercrime and international security are blurring as cybercriminals are enlisted in state-sponsored campaigns.

Third, cyber issues exhibit a cross-cutting nature that breaches institutional and epistemic boundaries, calling into action a swath of actors across the public-private divide and requiring coordination across knowledge domains, including technical, legal and policy knowledge.

Johann Ole Willers, Lars Gjesvik. Cybersecurity as an issue of international affairs. In: Diplomacy in the age of expertise: the case of cyber diplomacy. International Affairs, Oxford University Press, fev./2026. Internet: <academic.oup.com> (adapted).

Based on the ideas presented in the preceding text, as well as on its linguistic aspects, judge the following items.

Cyber issues have become increasingly central in international affairs and the breadth of issues discussed under this rubric has grown, including questions of peace and conflict, the fight against cybercrime and controversies around internet governance. In this context, three issue characteristics have affected the practice of cyber diplomacy.

First, cybersecurity retains a strong technical undercurrent that not only poses a challenge to conventional diplomatic skills but also introduces a distinct temporal quality. Reflecting broader trends in digital connectivity, cybersecurity evolves at the speed of technology, contributing to the transient nature of diplomatic practices, the limits of which are "constantly being renegotiated". These conceptual ambiguities have imbued cyber governance with a distinct political dynamic, offering ample opportunity for varied policy solutions to find "rhetorical shelter".

Second, perceptions of the stakes involved are equally evolving, with initial concerns about cyber war and cyberterrorism being supplemented with a focus on attacks below the level of armed attack. Relatedly, dichotomies across cybercrime and international security are blurring as cybercriminals are enlisted in state-sponsored campaigns.

Third, cyber issues exhibit a cross-cutting nature that breaches institutional and epistemic boundaries, calling into action a swath of actors across the public-private divide and requiring coordination across knowledge domains, including technical, legal and policy knowledge.

Johann Ole Willers, Lars Gjesvik. Cybersecurity as an issue of international affairs. In: Diplomacy in the age of expertise: the case of cyber diplomacy. International Affairs, Oxford University Press, fev./2026. Internet: <academic.oup.com> (adapted).

Based on the ideas presented in the preceding text, as well as on its linguistic aspects, judge the following items.